The emergence and transmission of COVID-19 in European countries, 2019-2020: a comprehensive review of timelines, cases and containment.

When it emerged in late 2019, COVID-19 was carried via travelers to Germany, France and Italy, where freedom of movement accelerated its transmission throughout Europe. However, effective non-pharmaceutical interventions introduced by European governments led to containment of the rapid increase in cases within European nations. Electronic searches were performed to obtain the number of confirmed cases, incident rates and non-pharmaceutical government measures for each European country. The spread and impact of non-pharmaceutical interventions throughout Europe were assessed and visualized. Specifically, heatmaps were used to represent the number of confirmed cases and incident rates for each of the countries over time. In addition, maps were created showing the number of confirmed cases and incident rates in Europe on three different dates (15 March, 15 April and 15 May 2020), which allowed us to assess the geographic and temporal patterns of the disease.

Seroprevalence of Asymptomatic Dengue Virus Infection and Its Antibodies Among Healthy/Eligible Saudi Blood Donors: Findings From Holy Makkah City.

BACKGROUND: Threat to blood transfusion-transmitted dengue virus (DENV) and its antibodies has recently emerged worldwide. Dengue fever is an endemic disease in Saudi Arabia, particularly in its Western region. The aim of this study was to estimate the seroprevalence of asymptomatic DENV infection and its antibodies among eligible Saudi blood donors. METHODS: Serum samples from 910 healthy/eligible adult male Saudi blood donors, who reside in Holy Makkah City of Saudi Arabia, were collected between March 2015 and August 2016 and screened for the detection of DENV nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) antigen and anti-DENV IgM and IgG antibodies using commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits (Panbio, Brisbane, QLD, Australia). RESULTS: Among the tested donors, 48 (5.3%) were seropositive for DENV-NS1 antigen, whereas 50 (5.5%) and 354 (38.9%) were seropositive for anti-DENV IgM and IgG antibodies, respectively. Seropositivity for DENV-NS1 antigen and/or anti-DENV IgM antibody among the tested donors reflects their ongoing asymptomatic viremic infectious stage with DENV during their donation time, whereas high prevalence of anti-DENV IgG seropositivity reflects the high endemicity of dengue disease in this region of Saudi Arabia. CONCLUSIONS: These results show high prevalence of asymptomatic DENV infection and its antibodies among Saudi blood donors, raising the importance of establishing blood screening for dengue disease at different blood donation services and units in Saudi Arabia to improve the guarantee of blood transfusions and to control DENV dissemination.

Frequency of viral, bacterial and parasitic enteropathogens among young children with acute diarrhoea in Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVE: The frequency of viral, bacterial and parasitic enteropathogens among 270 paediatric patients (< 5 years of age) in various hospitals of Makkah and Jeddah cities of Saudi Arabia were investigated. METHODS: A total of 270 stool samples were collected from paediatric patients with signs and symptoms of gastroenteritis from different hospitals of Makkah and Jeddah cities of Saudi Arabia. Samples were investigated for bacterial, viral and parasitic enteropathogens using microscopic examination, immunological tests and bacterial culture techniques. RESULTS: Out of 270 stool samples tested in this study for various causative agents of gastroenteritis, total number of positive samples were 106 (39%). Of these, 90 (33%) had viral etiology, of which Rotavirus type A (serotype G) was found in the majority of cases 60 (22%), Adenovirus in 20 (7%) patients, and Astrovirus in the remaining 10 (4%) patients. Thirteen (5%) were of bacterial origins of which 9 (3%) were Salmonella species, 4 (2%) were Shigella species and only 3 (1%) of the samples were positive for Giardia lamblia. CONCLUSION: This study indicated that most of the diarrhoeal diseases in young children in Saudi Arabia are due to viral etiology, where Rotavirus was predominant followed by Adenovirus and Astrovirus. While Salmonella and Shigella represent the bacterial etiology of paediatric acute diarrhoea and only Giardia lamblia was found as a parasitic cause of diarrhoea in young children in our study.

Helicobacter pylori infection in asymptomatic subjects in Makkah, Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the seroprevalence of Helicobacter.pylori antibodies in asymptomatic healthy population. METHODS: Convenient sampling was done in asymptomatic healthy individuals accompanying the patients who had no previous history of epigastric pain. Venous blood was collected from individuals and sera separated. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to determine H. pylori IgG antibodies in all sera. RESULTS: A total of 396 samples were collected. H. pylori antibodies were found in 201 (51%) individuals. A 46% seroprevalence was found in subjects 15-20 years of age, which gradually increased with age and reached to .61% in subjects up to 50 years of age. Subjects > 40 years had higher antibody response than those < 40 years. There was no significant association between presence of H. pylori antibodies and dietary habits and sources of drinking water. H. pylori antibodies in female smokers were found in 9% and in non smoking females were 91% but no such difference was found in male smokers or non-smokers. CONCLUSION: Infection with H. pylori is prevalent in the healthy individuals of Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Infection is acquired in the early age and reaches up to 61% as the age advances. A nation wide epidemiological study is warranted to determine the seroprevalence of H. pylori in Saudi Arabia.

Prevalence of antibodies to human parvovirus b19 in saudi women of childbearing age in makkah.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the seroprevalence rate of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin M (IgM) to parvovirus B19 in pregnant Saudi women in Makkah. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), a total of 1200 serum samples were tested for antibodies to parvovirus B19 known to cause a variety of clinical syndromes in women and newborn infants. RESULTS: Parvovirus B19 IgG antibodies detected in 46.6% and IgM antibodies were found in 2.25% of different age groups. CONCLUSION: The previous exposure to parvovirus B19 was determined, and 560 (46.6%) of 1200 pregnant Saudi women tested at their first antenatal visit were seropositive for specific IgG. The rate of maternal infection in susceptible pregnancies was 2.25%. These results were in accordance with previous studies performed in other countries.

Seropositivity of Chlamydia trachomatis among saudi pregnant women in makkah.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the seroprevalence rates of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin M (IgM) to Chlamydia trachomatis in Saudi pregnant women. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), a total of 1600 serum samples were tested for antibodies to Chlamydia trachomatis known to cause a variety of clinical syndromes in women and newborn infants. RESULTS: Chlamydia trachomatis IgG antibodies were detected in 8.7% and IgM antibodies were found in 1.5% of different age groups. CONCLUSION: Pregnant Saudi women have low prevalence rate of Chlamydia trachomatis IgG antibodies and lower prevalence for Chlamydia trachomatis IgM.

Rotavirus infection in infants and young children in Makkah, Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of rotavirus in infants and young children in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. METHODS: A population-based prevalence study was done in randomly selected infants and young children suffering from acute diarrhoea. Faecal specimens were collected from 479 patients. A latex agglutination test was used for rotavirus detection. All positive and 10 negative samples for rotavirus by latex agglutination were also tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS: Rotavirus was detected in 48 (10%) patients using latex agglutination test. ELISA detected 46/48 positive samples. Ten samples that tested negative with latex test were also negative with ELISA. Infection with rotavirus was more frequent among infants and children < 2 years old, with a maximum incidence among children 0-12 months. Rotavirus infection was 3.1% in Saudi nationals, compared to 6.9% in other nationalities. CONCLUSION: In this study the prevalence rate of 10% was low compared to other studies done in different regions of Saudi Arabia. This low rate could be due to the geographical location of Makkah with very hot and dry summer, and mild winter and almost no rain throughout the year.

TORCH agents in pregnant Saudi women.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the seroprevalence rates of IgG to common TORCH agents in pregnant Saudi women using indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A total of 926 samples of sera were tested for antibodies to TORCH agents known to cause serious congenital infections: Toxoplasma gondii, rubella, cytomegalovirus (CMV), herpes simplex viruses (HSV-1 and HSV-2), varicella zoster virus (VZV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1 and HIV-2). RESULTS: Toxoplasma IgG antibodies were detected in 35.6%, CMV total IgG antibodies were found in 92.1%, rubella IgG antibodies in 93.3%, HSV-1 IgG antibodies in 90.9%, HSV-2 IgG in 27.1%, and VZV IgG antibodies in 74.4%. A 0% seroprevalence rate for HIV-1 and -2 was found. CONCLUSION: Pregnant Saudi women commonly have IgG antibodies to rubella, CMV, HSV-1 and -2, VZV, and T. gondii. Serological evidence of HIV infection was not observed.

A study of group a streptococcal bacteria isolation from children less than 12 years with acute tonsillitis, pharyngitis and healthy primary school children.

AIM: This study was carried out to assess the prevalence of Group A Streptococcal (GAS) bacteria in the throat specimens of children with tonsillitis and pharyngitis compared to healthy children of the same age group. METHODOLOGY: The study was a prospective one. Throat swabs were obtained from 73 children aged 1-12 years diagnosed with acute tonsillitis and pharyngitis (sore throat and pyrexia >38.5°C) visiting a pediatric outpatient clinic between December, 1999 and April, 2000. In the same period throat swabs were obtained from 465 healthy primary school children aged 6-12 years. GAS from patients was tested for sentivity to penicillin, erythromycin, and cefaclor. RESULTS: In children with tonsillitis and pharyngitis GAS was found in 29 out of 73 (40%). In healthy school children GAS was found in 15 out of 465 (3%).In the patients group GAS was sensitive to penicillin in 14(48%), erythromycin in 27(93%), and cefaclor in 28(96%) CONCLUSION: Although the prevalence of GAS among healthy children was similar to international studies, the GAS infection was high among children with acute tonsillitis and pharyngitis. Sensitivity to penicillin was less than 50% and more than 90% for erythromycin and cefaclor. We recommend routine throat swab for children with acute tonsillitis and pharyngitis and the proper treatment of GAS positive patients to prevent further complications.